Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, , vol. Maintenance rehearsal simply repeats the same kind of analysis that has already been carried out. Elaborative rehearsal involves a S. Bellezza, Journal of Personality and Social deeper, more meaningful analysis of the information. For example, people engage Psychology, , vol. Generally, elaborative rehearsal results in recall performance that is two to three times better than maintenance rehearsal. Distinctiveness refers to the uniqueness of the information relative to surrounding information and previous experience.
Relevance refers to the degree to which the information is perceived to be important. The degree of elaboration refers to how much thought is required to interpret and understand the information. Generally, deep processing of information that involves these factors will result in the best possible recall and retention of information.
Use unique presentation and interesting activities to engage people to deeply process information. Use case studies, examples, and other devices to make information relevant to an audience.
Note that deep processing requires more concentration and effort than mere exposure e. Depth of processing is improved through the use of multiple presentation media and learning activities that engage learners in elaborative rehearsal—as in this e-learning course by Kaplan EduNeering. This notion is, at best, an oversimplification, and in many supporting group decision making and cases it is simply incorrect. It should be noted that with the exception of inventors, Personality and Social Psychology, , vol.
For example, NASA employs a highly bureaucratized design process for each 3 For a popular treatment of the power of group- mission, involving numerous working groups, review committees, and layers of and committee-based decision making, see The Wisdom of Crowds by James Surowiecki, review from teams of various specializations.
The process is slow and expensive, Anchor, Virtually every aspect of mission technology is a product of design by committee. Design by committee is optimal when committee members are diverse, bias and influence among committee members is minimized, local decision-making authority is encouraged operating within an agreed upon global framework, member input and contributions are efficiently collected and shared, ideal group sizes are employed working groups contain three members, whereas review boards and decision-making panels contain seven to twelve members , and a simple governance model is adopted to facilitate decision making and ensure that the design process cannot be delayed or deadlocked.
Consider design by dictator when an aggressive timeline is the primary factor. Favor some form of design by committee for most projects, as it generally outperforms design by dictator on most critical measures with lower overall risk of failure — bad dictators are at least as common as good dictators, and design by dictator tends to lack the error correction and organizational safety nets of committee-based approaches.
Autocracy is linear and fast, but risky and prone to error. Democracy is iterative and slow, but careful and resistant to error. Both models have their place depending on the circumstances. Freedom Tower left came Given these conditions, Freedom from Daniel Libeskind using a Tower was destined to be designed design process that can be aptly by committee. As the design iterated characterized as design by dictator.
The final design right consequences of getting the design is less visually interesting, but it is, by wrong unacceptable, and the number definition, a superior design. The implicit claim of desire lines is that they represent an unbiased Transportation Study, , Final Report.
Desire lines have applications beyond the design of walkways. Traces of use or wear indicate frequency of real-world use generally, and are an important consideration in the design of any object or environment. For example, typing on a traditional keyboard forces the wrists into a position that often results in repetitive strain injury RSI. To address this, several manufacturers have introduced keyboards that split in the middle, eliminating the need to cock the wrist and allowing each hand to assume a more natural position.
Other examples include text fields in a standardized form that are repeatedly filled incorrectly, usage activity on websites, and online voting systems where users can indicate their like or dislike for a particular item of information e.
When possible, use creative methods to detect desire lines prior to finalizing design specifications. When desire lines emerge after a design has been implemented, they do so due to an overriding user preference or improvement in efficiency. If the cost of the desire line is nominal, consider leaving it alone.
If the cost is significant, it is generally more cost-beneficial to modify the design to incorporate and leverage the desire line than to attempt to subvert its use. A classic example of a desire line that cuts through a paved bend in a park. All products progress sequentially through basic stages of creation. There are four basic stages of creation for all New Tools by Preston G.
Smith and Donald products: requirements, design, development, and testing. Requirements Reinertsen, Free Press, In formal processes, requirements are gathered through market research, customer feedback, focus groups, and usability testing. Informally, design requirements are often derived from direct knowledge or experience. Design requirements are best obtained through controlled interactions between designers and members of the target audience, and not simply by asking people what they want or like—often they do not know, or cannot clearly articulate their needs.
Design This stage is where design requirements are translated into a form that yields a set of specifications. The goal is to meet the design requirements, though an implicit goal is to do so in a unique fashion.
Excellent design is usually accomplished through careful research of existing or analogous solutions, active brainstorming of many diverse participants, ample use of prototyping, and many iterations of trying, testing, and tuning concepts.
A design that is appreciably the same at the beginning and end of this stage is probably not much of a design. Development The development stage is where design specifications are transformed into an actual product. The goal of development is to precisely meet the design specifications. Two basic quality control strategies are used to accomplish this: reduce variability in the materials, creations of parts, and assembly of parts; and verify that specifications are being maintained throughout the development process.
Testing The testing stage is where the product is tested to ensure that it meets design requirements and specifications, and will be accepted by the target audience. Testing at this stage generally focuses on the quality of modules and their integration, real-world performance real contexts, real users , and ease and reliability of installation. Gather requirements through controlled interactions with target audiences, rather than simple feedback or speculation by team members.
Use research, brainstorming, prototyping, and iterative design to achieve optimal designs. Minimize variability in products and processes to improve quality. Test all aspects of the design to the degree possible. Th e linear model of each stage with each iteration. The of iteration is prohibitive. In all other iterative model also known as the cases, the iterative model is preferred. People do judge books by their covers, Internet sites by their first pages, and 1 See, for example, Why We Buy: The Science buildings by their lobbies.
This initial impression of a system or environment of Shopping by Paco Underhill, Touchstone Books, ; Hotel Design, Planning, and greatly influences subsequent perceptions and attitudes, which then affects the Development by Walter A.
Rutes, Richard H. This impression is largely formed at the entry Penner, Lawrence Adams, W. Such errors in entry point design annoy visitors who make it through, or deter visitors altogether. Either way, it does not promote additional interaction. The key elements of good entry point design are minimal barriers, points of prospect, and progressive lures. Examples of barriers to entry are highly trafficked parking lots, noisy displays with many unnecessary elements, sales- people standing at the doors of retail stores, or anything that impedes people from getting to and moving through an entry point.
Barriers can be aesthetic as well as functional in nature. For example, a poorly maintained building front or landscape is an aesthetic barrier to entry. Points of Prospect Entry points should allow people to become oriented and clearly survey available options.
Points of prospect include store entrances that provide a clear view of store layout and aisle signs, or Internet pages that provide good orientation cues and navigation options. Points of prospect should provide sufficient time and space for a person to review options with minimal distraction or disruption—i.
Progressive Lures Lures should be used to attract and pull people through the entry point. Progressive lures can be compelling headlines from the front page of a newspaper, greeters at restaurants, or the display of popular products or destinations e. Progressive lures get people to incrementally approach, enter, and move through the entry point. Maximize the effectiveness of the entry point in a design by reducing barriers, establishing clear points of prospect, and using progressive lures.
Provide sufficient time and space for people to review opportunities for interaction at the entry point. Consider progressive lures like highlighting, entry point greeters, and popular offerings visibly located beyond the entry point to get people to enter and progress through. See also Immersion, Prospect-Refuge, and Wayfinding. The summaries also act as a point of prospect, allowing readers to quickly scan for stories of interest with no competing visual barriers.
Page references on select summaries act Apple Computer retail stores maintain as progressive lures, leading readers the high standards of design excellence to the full articles in different sections for which Apple is known. The stores of the paper. Apple Retail Store The use of glass Level 1 A large point of prospect is provided minimizes visual barriers. Products line the periphery of the space, offering clear options from the point of prospect. A small set of glass stairs at the entry point acts as a lure, creating the impression A large glass staircase acts as a secondary of entering a special place.
Norman, yet most accidents are actually due to design errors rather than errors of human Psychological Review, , vol. An understanding of the causes of errors suggests specific design and Absent Minded?
The Psychology of Mental strategies that can greatly reduce their frequency and severity. Slips are sometimes referred to as errors of action or errors of execution, and 2 Note that there are many different error occur when an action is not what was intended.
For example, a slip occurs when taxonomies. A nice review and discussion a person dials a frequently dialed phone number when intending to dial a different regarding the various taxonomies is found in Human Error by James Reason, Cambridge number. Slips are the result of automatic, unconscious processes, and frequently University Press, A very readable result from a change of routine or an interruption of an action.
For example, a and interesting treatment of human error person forgets their place in a procedure when interrupted by a phone call. Position controls to prevent accidental activation of functions that may have detrimental consequences. When this is not possible, use confirmations to interrupt the flow and verify the action. Consider the use of affordances and constraints to influence actions. Mistakes are sometimes referred to as errors of intention or errors of planning, and occur when an intention is inappropriate.
For example, a mistake occurs when a nurse interprets an alarm incorrectly and then administers the incorrect medicine. Mistakes are caused by conscious mental processes, and frequently result from stress or decision-making biases. For example, a person is biased to select only from visible options. Minimize mistakes by increasing situational awareness and reducing environmental noise. Make key indicators and controls visible within one eyespan whenever possible.
Reduce stress and cognitive load by minimizing the auditory and visual noise. Provide just enough feedback to accomplish warnings and other functions, and no more. Consider the use of confirmations that require multiple steps to verify the intention of highly critical tasks. Train on error recovery and troubleshooting, emphasizing communication with other team members.
Finally, always incorporate the principle of forgiveness into a design. See also Affordance, Confirmation, Constraint, and Forgiveness. The expectation effect refers to ways in which expectations affect perception and 1 Seminal works on the expectation effect include The Human Problems of an Industrial behavior.
Generally, when people are aware of a probable or desired outcome, Civilization by Elton Mayo, Macmillan, ; their perceptions and behavior are affected in some way. Jacobson, Psychological Reports, vol. For a nice review of the Hawthorne Effect—Employees are more productive based on their belief that placebo effect, see The Placebo Effect: An changes made to the environment will increase productivity.
Pygmalion Effect—Students perform better or worse based on the expectations of their teacher. Placebo Effect—Patients experience treatment effects based on their belief that a treatment will work. Rosenthal Effect—Teachers treat students differently based on their expectations of how students will perform. Demand Characteristics—Participants in an experiment or interview provide responses and act in ways that they believe are expected by the experimenter or interviewer.
The expectation effect demonstrates that expectations can greatly influence perceptions and behavior. For example, tell a large group of people that a new product will change their lives, and a significant number will find their lives changed—the belief is simply a device that helps create the change.
Once a person believes something will happen, the belief alone creates that possibility. Since designers are naturally biased toward their designs, they often unintentionally influence test subjects through words or actions, or may omit certain results in order to corroborate their expectations. Test subjects often respond by seeking to meet the expectations communicated to them.
Consider the expectation effect when introducing and promoting a design. When trying to persuade, set expectations in a credible fashion for the target audience rather than letting them form their own unbiased conclusions.
When evaluating a design, use proper test procedures to avoid biases resulting from the expectation effect. For example, the marker along the time axis indicates the point at which an Performance expectation was set.
A change in performance may be observed as a result e. Time A credible presentation will generate an expectation effect in about 30 percent of any given audience. Keeping the claims and outcomes vague often helps—a believing person is biased to interpret ambiguous effects in accordance with their expectations. This technique was used to sell snake oil solutions, and is still widely used to sell astrology, psychic predictions, and things such as fad diets.
Romance could develop through social activities or short trips. Your lucky day this week will be Sunday. For example, the more a song or slogan is effect, truth effect, and repetition effect.
The exposure effect applies only to stimuli that are 2 The seminal application of the exposure effect perceived as neutral or positive. Repeated exposures to an offending stimulus may was in early 20th-century propaganda—see, actually amplify the negative perception, rather than remedy it.
The exposure effect for example, Adolf Hitler: A Chilling Tale is observed with music, paintings, drawings, images, people, and advertisements. The exposure effect gradually weakens as the number of of Personality and Social Psychology presentations increases—probably due to boredom.
Complex and interesting Monographs, vol. Bornstein, Psychological Bulletin, , vol. Familiarity plays a primary role in aesthetic appeal and acceptance; people like things more when frequently exposed to them. For example, the initial resistance by many people to the Vietnam Veterans Memorial was primarily caused by a lack of familiarity with its minimalist, abstract design. Similar resistance was experienced by Pablo Picasso with his Cubist works, Gustave Eiffel with the Eiffel Tower, Frank Lloyd Wright with the Guggenheim Museum, and many others whose works are today widely accepted as brilliant and beautiful.
As the level of exposure to these works increased with time, familiarity with the works also increased and resulted in greater acceptance and popularity.
Use the exposure effect to strengthen advertising and marketing campaigns, enhance the perceived credibility and aesthetic of designs, and generally improve the way people think and feel about a message or product.
Keep the exposures brief, and separate them with periods of delay. The exposure effect will be strongest for the first ten exposures; therefore, focus resources on early presentations for maximum benefit. Expect and prepare for resistance to a design if it is significantly different from the norm. Ubiquitous positive depictions, such as these of Vladimir Lenin, are commonly used to increase the likeability and support of political leaders.
Similar techniques are used in marketing, advertising, and electoral campaigns. The also referred to as body-ism. An image without a face would by Dane Archer, Debra D. Kimes, and Michael have a face-ism ratio of 0. Kimes, and Michael Barrios, face-ism images. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, , vol. The term face-ism originated from research on gender bias in the media. It was found that images of men in magazines, movies, and other media have significantly higher face-ism ratios than images of women.
This appears true across most cultures, and is thought to reflect gender-stereotypical beliefs regarding the characteristics of men and women. While there is little consensus as to why this is the case, it is likely the result of unconscious processes resulting from a mix of biological and cultural factors.
In one experiment, for example, male and female college students were randomly assigned a task to draw either a man or a woman. The students were told they would be evaluated on their drawing skills, and were given no additional instructions.
Both genders drew men with prominent and detailed faces, and drew women with full bodies and minimally detailed faces. When the design objective requires more thoughtful interpretations or associations, use images with high face-ism ratios. When the design objective requires more ornamental interpretations or associations, use images with low-face-ism ratios. The high face-ism photograph emphasizes more cerebral or personality-related attributes like intelligence and ambition.
The lower face-ism photographs emphasize more physical attributes like sensuality and physical attractiveness. No matter how knowledgeable the designer 1 Also known as factor of ignorance. Factors of 2 Note that different elements within a system safety are used to offset the potential effects of these unknowns. This is achieved can observe different factors of safety.
For example, a wing on an aircraft may apply a by adding materials and components to the system in order to make the design factor of safety that is much greater than the exceed the specification that is believed to be necessary to meet the design factor of safety applied to less critical elements. For example, designing an Internet service that can support one thousand users is straightforward. However, to account for unanticipated uses of 3 See, for example, To Engineer Is Human: the service e.
In this case, a safety factor of three would mean that Macmillan, ; and Design Paradigms: the service would be rated to support one thousand users, but actually designed to Case Histories of Error and Judgment in Engineering, Cambridge University Press, support three times that many, or three thousand users. The size of the safety factor corresponds directly to the level of ignorance of the design parameters.
The greater the ignorance, the greater the safety factor. For example, structures that are well understood and made of materials of consistent quality, such as steel and concrete structures, typically use a safety factor ranging from two to four. Structures that are well understood and made of materials of varying quality, such as wood, may use a safety factor ranging from four to eight.
When ignorance is combined with materials of varying quality, the safety factor can get quite large. For example, the designers of the Great Pyramid at Giza unknowingly applied a safety factor of over twenty. More elements means more cost. New designs must typically have large factors of safety because the number of unknowns is great.
Unfortunately, this process usually continues until an accident or failure occurs, at which point cost considerations become secondary and safety factors are again increased.
Apply them in proportion to the ignorance of the design parameters and the severity of the consequences of failure. Reduce safety factors with caution, especially when specifications extend beyond design precedents. Observe the rated capacity of a system when making decisions that stress system limits, and not the designed capacity capacity including factors of safety , except in cases of emergency.
On the morning was based largely on the belief that designed to have a safety factor of of January 28, , the temperature the safety factor was sufficient to three. However, low temperatures at the launch pad was 36 degrees F offset any low-temperature risks.
Despite the after launch. Every action creates an equal and opposite reaction. When reactions loop back to 1 In terms of practical application, the seminal works on systems and feedback loops include affect themselves, a feedback loop is created. Positive feedback amplifies system output, resulting in growth or Jay W.
Negative feedback dampens output, stabilizing the system around an equilibrium point. For example, in response to head and neck injuries in football in the s, designers 3 See, for example, Macroscope: A New created plastic football helmets with internal padding to replace leather helmets. More head and neck injuries occurred than before. Publishers, By concentrating on the problem in isolation e.
This resulted in more injuries, which resulted in additional redesigns that made the helmet shells harder and more padded, and so on. For example, the Segway Human Transporter uses negative feedback loops to maintain equilibrium. As a rider leans forward or backward, the Segway accelerates or decelerates to keep the system in equilibrium. To achieve this smoothly, the Segway makes one hundred adjustments every second. Given the high adjustment rate, the oscillations around the point of equilibrium are so small as to not be detectable.
However, if fewer adjustments were made per second, the oscillations would increase in size and the ride would become increasingly jerky.
A key lesson of feedback loops is that things are connected—changing one variable in a system will affect other variables in that system and other systems. This is important because it means that designers must not only consider particular elements of a design, but also their relation to the design as a whole and the greater environment.
Consider positive feedback loops to perturb systems to change, but include negative feedback loops to prevent runaway behaviors that lead to system failure. Consider negative feedback loops to stabilize systems, but be cautious in that too much negative feedback in a system can lead to stagnation. Positive feedback loops will use of helmets in tackling. Here's The Proof:. I wasn't planning on putting any testimonials for this report up, since it's so inexpensive and sells itself so well.
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